The Role And Importance Of Palliative Care Nursing Essay

The Role And Importance Of Palliative Care Nursing Essay When the patient has serious illness like cancer and came to the hospital and complaining from pain, anorexia and fatigue at this time what can he is suppose to do? The answer of this question is in the definition of palliative care. What is palliative care? Palliative care according to (World Health Organization [WHO], 2010) it is a medical profession stand up to helps the patients and families to come over the pain and other problems like physical, psychosocial and spiritual with life-threatening illness. This can be done by the prevention and relief of suffering and early assessment and treatment of pain. Palliative care according to (Get palliativecare.org, 2010) is provided by a team of professionals working together with your primary doctor. It is appropriate at any point in a serious illness and can be provided at the same time as treatment that is meant to cure. Moreover, patient in the end of life can face and experience a host of distressing symptoms such as pain, dyspnea, and delirium are reported to be among the most feared and burdensome. Also, pain can be influenced by many factors, including the patients prior experience with pain, meaning given to pain, emotional stresses, family, and culture influences (Mcphee papadakis, 2009). (Mcphee papadakis ,2009,p.70) stated that the common problem for patients at the end of life up to 75% of patients dying of cancer is the pain and it is what people say they fear most about dying. Therefore, nurses must be aware about the barriers to good care ,which including the lack of knowledge about the proper selection and dosing of analgesic medication ,limited training and clinical experience with pain management, addiction which can occurs if the patient and caregivers misused the medicines (Mcphee papadakis, 2009). In addition, there are 20 reasons can make the palliative care difficult to the nurses (Becker, 2010). I am going to mention some reasons; Shortage of staff. Shortage of nursing staff is one of the reasons which can make the palliative care difficult. In my experience in the hospital where I was working the staff nurses are in limited numbers , especially in the word the staff nurse can handle 9-12 patients some of these patients are having cancers and some time one staff nurse for 6 rooms each room has 5-7 patients!. Cancers patients cannot bear the pain and the staff nurse wants to do other work like inserting intravenous fluid for diabetic patient with hypoglycemia, so how the nurse can concentrate in doing that? Here the staff has to prioritize her work, some staff nurses finding difficulty to do that. Therefore the hospitals administration has to find and create a policy change in response to the nursing shortage as supported by Twigg , Duffield , Thompson Rapley (2010). In addition to that, as Abrahm(2010) stated that due to shortage of staff palliative care in oncologists, intensivists, advanced cardiac, pulmonary, renal, and hepatic diseases needs to be improved. Lack of knowledge of some medications and symptoms control. There were 146 surveys distributed to care providers from multiple settings. Out 135 0f 146 reported that there are several problems can make the palliative care difficult like poor pain and symptoms control, lack of education for care providers as stated by Sellick , Charles , Dagsvik , Kelley (1996) The availability of clear polices in dealing with death issues. In my experience only in some hospitals we can find clear polices in dealing with death issues especially brain death , this matter can involve many elements like; patient himself if he/she recommended before death if his/her brain died the caregiver can remove the supporting equipments, family according to the religion. So the staff nurse must be a wear about many religions. In understanding of the reasons and finding solutions to make the difficulties easier to the nurses can make too much improvement in quality of life. Quality of life can be affected by the level of education in heart failure patients. Patients with high education level often can improve more than low education level which usually reported to care givers in bad physical and functional condition as supported by Barbareschi, Sanderman, Leegte, van Veldhuisen Jaarsma (2011). In addition, there are two factors are related to quality of life in heart failure patients, demographic and clinical. Also physical excises one of the main elements of disease management program. (Jaarsma, Johansson, Agren , Strà ¶mberg ,2010) I want to stress in one point from my experience I did not see patient with heart failure has been cured totally from the disease, so I think the palliative care can play role to help this patient to enhance his quality of life. For example, one of the patients I was taking care of him he told me I am useless now! So for this type of patients I have to help him to move this idea from his mind, and let him to understand that the life did not end yet and we are finding developments in medical field, and give him task and encourage him to do it, after of compilation I have to enhance the feeling which he can feel it and let him to understand that he is worthfull and useful. Since I chose the heart failure I want to mention how the staff nurse can manage the pain in this case, which include: Pharmacologic treatment: like angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, ÃŽÂ ²-blockers, diuretics, and possibly aldosterone antagonists and angiotensin receptor blockers (Lewis, Heitkemper, Dirksen, OBrien Bucher, 2007). Diet and body weight: the recommended diet for these patients is low sodium diet to reduce body edema; recording upon admission body weight can detect the body weight if increased or no (Lewis et al., 2007). Behavioral and lifestyle management: exercise/physical activity: as stated by Benetti, Araujo, Santos (2010) exercises can improve the quality of life for heart failure. Therefore, the nurses must promote home and community-based care by taking the responsibility and contribute in education of patient and involve him to implement the therapeutic procedure to improve the quality of life. Teaching the patients and family how the progression of the disease is influenced by compliance with the treatment plan (Johnson, 2008, p.428). One of the most important points in improving quality of life as human being in my point of view is being opened to others .By this way the person can share others experience which can teach him/her something can change or improve the quality of life. In addition to that some patients need spiritual support which can make the life of some patients running in smooth way as supported by Hegarty , Abernethy , Olver Currow (2011). Also, the quality of life can enhanced by the disable patients rehabilitation. As will as, mixing patients with disabilities in right and balance way can improve the quality life as supported by (Fadyl, McPherson Kayes, 2011). So how the caregivers can measure the quality of life? The relationship among patients and families with caregivers can detect the quality of life as Hasson-Ohayon, Roe, Kravetz, Levy-Frank Meir (2011) stated in their article. And, in my opinion quality of life is not easy to measure it because different criteria. The quality of life can make the measurement is so complicated, but generally speaking the improvement of individual health can indicate in quality of life. Conclusion: The palliative care profession is can plays important role in professional healths fields by helping the patients and families to understand the serious illness and how to manage and improve the quality of life .By educating the nursing staff and they must be in university level in both arts and sciences (McEwen willss, 2007). As deeply supported by Henderson theory which stressing on the important of education for the nurses. In addition to that the caregiver should try their best to improve the quality of life which can lead to improve the palliative care, by understanding each individual is unique in many aspects and trying to deal differently accordingly. The hospitals managers should understand the teamworks conflict and create polices to solve the shortage of nursing staff can enhance the palliative care to reach to optimal quality of patients life.

Discipline in Childhood Essay -- Parenting Papers

Discipline in Childhood Children require freedom to grow and to learn, but they will not thrive on unlimited freedom. The aim of discipline is to set reasonable limits which protect children from harm and teach them what is safe and what is not. If children are to grow up into responsible, conscientious, and dependable adults, they must learn the social, moral, and ethical standards that are considered acceptable in our society. They must also learn to respect the rights and property of others. Children brought up without discipline may become selfish, greedy, dishonest, unpopular, uncooperative and insecure. Undisciplined children constantly demand attention. They may be inconsiderate or disrespectful to others. Some are destructive, aggressive, and accident prone. A child allowed to disobey without punishment is unlikely to develop much respect for law as he grows older. Although it is impossible to define rules for discipline that are appropriate for every situation, some principles are well established. * Your child needs your LOVE more than anything else. * You should use discipline to teach your child. * You should not discipline your child before he or she is old enough to understand the reason for the punishment. * You should not punish your child for behavior that is part of normal development, such as thumb sucking, speech development, or accidents that occur during toilet training. * You should not punish your child for anything that is accidental. * Both parents should be consistent in the application of discipline. * You should explain to your child, in language ... ... has been forgiven. For a time-out to be effective there must also be "time-in." To summaries this piece of work this shows us that children can’t be given unlimited freedom because they will run wild, and this also shows that children require your love and support in life not only as a child but also when they are growing up. This also shows us that children who are NOT disciplined tend to be â€Å"Greedy, dishonest, selfish etc†¦Ã¢â‚¬  these children also seem to get into more trouble than children who receive more love and support during their childhood. It also says that you should NOT use discipline on children that are too young to understand what is going on, due to this may effect their mental development. This also shows us that ‘time out’ is one of the best disciplines in the way to teach a child to stop misbehaving.

Gonorrhea Essay -- essays research papers

Gonorrhea   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We chose the bacterial disease gonorrhea. We were not able to find when the disease was discovered or who discovered it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gonorrhea is a bacterial disease that is an infection caused by gonoccocus bacteria. This bacteria is round shaped and can live only in dark, warm, moist places. These places would include; inside your body, cervix, penis, throat, and rectum. It usually involves the urethra in males, and vagina, cervix, and fallopian tubes in females.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For 2-9 days there are no symptoms of Gonorrhea. Then some do occur. There can be frequent burring urination and thick green-yellow discharge from the penis or vagina. Also, there may be rectal discomfort and discharge, joint pain, a mild rash, or sore throat and swollen glands. For men, the opening of the penis may be red and sore. Symptoms of gonorrhea show up more in males than in females, in fact, about half of the women with gonorrhea have no symptoms. Effects of this disease could include; gonococcal eye infection, blood poisoning, infectious arthritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, epididnmitis, endocarditis, sexual impotence in men, and infertility in women. Also, pregnant women can infect unborn babies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gonorrhea can be diagnosed by tests that include blood studies. There could be laboratory cultures and microscopic analysis of the discharge from the reproductive organs, rectum, or throat....

Operational Research Essay

Stock control or Inventory control has been in use for a long time. While small organizations may use manual methods to track their stock, complex global organizations make use of sophisticated systems like ERP’s to handle inventory control. There are various stock control methods in use. The methods used by a business organization depend upon not only the size and complexity but the type of industry it is in. A DIY superstore may use a method like the Order Point where the demand is driven by the customer’s buying patterns with little or no control by the manufacturer. As against this, a stock control method like MRP is used in companies like the Executive Upholstery Company where demand is dependent upon sales forecast and the sales orders. In the following paragraphs the stock control methods used by Executive Upholstery Company and DIY superstore are examined and also compared with each other to provide insights into the two methods discussed. Order Point Method – DIY superstore Supermarkets, warehouses and even some manufacturing companies tend to use Order Timing Decisions or Order Point methods for inventory control where the demand is not certain. The demand pattern in a DIY superstore is seasonal and is dictated by the consumers. The demand is independent of the manufacturing processes and many variations in demand need to be considered while controlling the inventory. Traditionally stock control was done using guess work to identify the stock levels and re order points. Factors like Safety Stock, EOQ, an Lead Times were not considered. Because of the huge numbers of items involved, and also the need to cope up with variable and uncertain demand patterns, manual methods gave way to some techniques like ABC/ VED analysis; Forecast Order Point. In ABC analysis, for instance, the inventory is categorized by the importance of the contribution to the final product cost. Some classification can be the ‘most important’, ‘important’ and ‘less important’. In the Forecast Order Point method of stock control, the future demand is calculated using the historical demand patterns. Time series methods like simple average, weighted average and exponential smoothing methods can also be used to forecast demand more accurately. In the DIY superstore example, the simple average method was used to forecast demand and lead time. Based on the 5 weeks of Master Production schedule, re order point for various items for the week6 were determined. Table 2 below shows the reorder point for the various items based on the 5 weeks of maser Production Schedule. The inherent problem with this technique is that it assumes that the forecast is near accurate and there is safety stock. In a weighted average method of forecasting technique, weighting to the most recent demand is given more and less to the earlier weeks. Techniques like Exponential smoothing are used to forecast the demand more accurately when there are trends in data and data is available for a longer period of time. Considerations like Safety stock and Service Level need to accounted for while using any forecasting technique. MRP in Executive Upholstery Company MRP is used when the demand is more certain and is based on sales forecasts, sales orders. It uses a time phased production schedule dictated by the capacity available. MRP uses, apart from this top level demand, inputs like Bill of Material, Stock on hand, Purchase orders already placed. Bill of materials lists all the parts and components required to make finished products and subassemblies. A structure diagram for BOM can be made using various levels with the finished product being at level 1. Manufacturing organizations do use stock files and work order files. Stock files list current stock of all parts: finished, raw material and sub assemblies. Work order files list replenishment orders which have been already placed. The main consideration of MRP is to produce a set of ‘time phased requirements’ (orders) for each component in the system at specified intervals of time – days or weeks. The first step in MRP is to identify the Gross Requirements for each component or assembly – how many in each time period. The Gross Requirements for each part in the example at table 1 is arrived at by identifying the demand quantity of each of the three types of chairs (Captain, Recliner and Director) from the Master Production Schedule and multiplying this quantity by the quantity in each part in its bill including the parts of sub assemblies and then adding them up all to arrive at the total demand for each part. While calculating the Gross Requirements, the lowest level components are used. Also, the beginning inventory(stock on hand) as well as the purchase orders pending were taken into consideration while calculating the net Requirement for each part. Another concept used in the example in Table1 is the Planned Order Releases which are scheduled orders by taking into consideration lead time, lot sizes. Summary MRP solves more complex issues like which part to order and when for a production process which are not easily amenable in a stock control method like Order Point. Order Point calculations do not take into consideration lot sizes, safety stock, and the more methodical approach of calculating Gross Requirements and net Requirements of each part involved in a finished product.

Giordano’s current positioning strategy Essay

Giordano’s current positioning strategy is value for money or quality merchandise at affordable prices. That’s differentiating their products compare to other rivals. Moreover they put their service different with high level of service provided to customer, their sales staff is dedicated, ever smiling, well mannered and helpful. Those positioning strategies were success due to filling a gap in the market for trendy, yet reasonably priced unisex apparel, reinforcing the positioning with the appropriate marketing communications and the delivery of quality service. Giordano reposition itself against its competitors in its current and new markets: The possibility of changing current positioning in the light of developments in the industry, particularly with respect to consumers’ desire for trendier fashion, as well as the increase in the number and strength of competitors should also be discussed. For instance, students could critique the firm’s interpretation of these trends and its subsequent decision to upgrade its image and capture the up-scale segment. Obviously, this move may cause problems with its current core target segments. This was apparent from the failure of its Giordano Ladies’ venture, because the positioning strategy failed to differentiate the up-scale segment from the value-conscious segment. Giordano has fought hard to establish its brand name for its value-for-money proposition, but it is also because of its established branding that Giordano cannot easily change its positioning. However, it can be seen that Giordano took measures to avoid the problems of brand dilution, and to overcome its apparent difficulty in moving consumers’ perception of Giordano towards a high-end positioning. For instance, it established a new product line, Bluestar Exchange, to cater to the needs of its existing value-for-money segment and revamped the core brand with extensive marketing communications and gave its stores a new look. Giordano initially tried to acquire Theme International in November 1999 to carry its line of up-market ladies apparel, but its take-over bid was rejected by Theme’s management and stockholders. Instead of giving up entering the up-market segment, it re-launched Giordano Ladies and Giordano Junior to carry a trendier line of apparel, with encouraging results. We may conclude that, Giordano should not lose its focus on customer services as one of its core differentiating factors. Should it have different positioning strategies for different markets? There are possible problems with having different positioning strategies in different markets. For instance, the recent slight shift towards a higher end from the current low-end value-for-money positioning in Hong Kong was not fully executed in its other markets. Customers in these markets may become confused as to what Giordano stands for, and this inconsistency makes effective service strategy implementation difficult, particularly as consumers are becoming increasingly mobile and travel more frequently between Giordano’s core markets. In addition, economies of scale in apparel purchase, design and market communications may be diluted, if different strategies are followed across markets. If this trend persisted, Giordano may dilute its brand name and possibly might weaken its competitive advantage in other areas as well. Probably, Giordano would do better to keep a consistent positioning, keep its management focused on its core strengths, and send a clear message to all its staff and customers. Giordano are slowly and gradually moved its positioning upwards to meet the rising affluence, and hence the resulting desire for high end apparel, of its core target segment. As Giordano enters into new markets and face strong and similarly positioned competitors in these markets (The Gap in the US, Japan and most European markets), the pressure to adopt a slightly different position that suits the unique market situation of a particular country may increase. In this case, students could suggest that Giordano acquire another existing brand or start-up a new business entity under a different brand, with its own positioning strategy. In fact, this is illustrated by Giordano’s recent venture, Bluestar Exchange, which catered to amore price-conscious, mass-market segment. However, this strategy is extremely risky due to the costs involved in building a new marketing strategy and brand, and students may come to the conclusion that having a consistent positioning may be the etter option even if it means competing head-on with established brands. In conclusion, a potential strategy for Giordano could be to maintain its positioning in Hong Kong and over time slowly and gradually shift its position in its other markets slightly more up-market to follow its Hong Kong positioning. This strategy would have the added advantage that it would move upwards together with its core target segments, which is also developing upwards in terms of education and increasing disposable income due to most of Giordano’s Asian markets are developing fast. We believe that in the balance, it would be better for Giordano to maintain a consistent positioning across all markets, even when Giordano decides to enter countries with entrenched competitors with similar positioning. Should these competitors be too strong, we feel that it would be better not to enter this market rather than try to establish a new brand and strategy. The main reason is that this would be expensive and high risk as less of Giordano’s core strengths could be transferred to this new market, and benefits from economies of scale could not fully be reaped like in terms of manufacturing volumes, marketing and training.

Claude Mckay, a Dialectical Analysis Essay

In Claude McKay’s, â€Å"Old England† and â€Å"Quashie to Buccra† McKay uses dialect as a way to give poems multiple meanings. What may be seen as a simplistic or naive poem about Jamaican life may actually be full of double meanings that only a select audience would be able to identify. In his poem’s, McKay ultimately gives Negros who work under white colonists the underlying message of black resistance by revolution. Perhaps what makes this interpretation so convincing is the background of the author. McKay was born Sunny Ville Jamaica as the youngest of 11 sons. While in Jamaica, McKay wrote â€Å"Songs of Jamaica†, which is where â€Å"Quashie to Buccra† is derived from. In this time, he also became a self proclaimed socialist, â€Å" As a socialist, McKay eventually became an editor at The Liberator, in addition to writing various articles for a number of left-wing publications† (Giles 1). During this period, McKay wrote â€Å"If We Must Die†, another poem charged with angst against the oppressed Negro society. Notably this poem was read aloud by Winston Churchill during World War II, however left unattributed to McKay himself. This can be seen as a reflection on society of the time, and how they weren’t ready to see a poem like that as a black revolutionary poem, and that the issues of the black Negro were quietly swept under the rug or ignored entirely. This is perhaps why the reading of an Englishman would differ so greatly from an African Negro reading â€Å"Quashie to Buccra†, as the Englishmen of the time were out of touch with the strife these workers were experiencing. McKay’s communist background may very well be a bi-product of the cultural discrepancies of the time, and a way for the workingman to get back at the bourgeoisie, or white, upper social class. To address the double meanings of Claude McKay’s work, the reader must first look at the surface layer. As we discussed in class, the poems were done on the condition they were completed in Jamaican dialect, not necessarily because of Claude McKay’s own choice. To a white, European society reading the poem, it comes across as a poem about a simple agriculturalist that is telling the white plantation owner about the fruits of his labor, and how they may not be fully appreciated. In actuality, the poem can be seen by Negros as a way to criticize the white plantation owner and in fact plant the seeds of rebellion. Indeed, the title of the work itself leads credence to it being veiled in double meaning. While a white, European in the high rungs of the social ladder may read the poem as a simple address of worker to plantation owner. However, a Negro experiencing the strife of Quashie, the black peasant worker who produces sweet potatoes in the poem, may relate to the unfairness of they experience from the Buccra, which is the white man being addressed in the poem. Indeed, McKay points out in the poem, â€Å"You taste the potato, and you say it’s sweet, but you don’t know how hard we work for it† (McKay 2). Buccra even attempts to haggle for a lower price, further showing he doesn’t understand the work that goes into farming the sweet potatoes, â€Å"You want a basketful fe quattiewut† (McKay 3). Not only does this demonstrate the Buccra’s insensitivity to the work that goes into the harvest, but it shows he’s greedy and milking the natives for every last sixpence. A white reader may look at the reading as Quashie simply complaining about his hard work, â€Å"The sun is hot like when fire catches a town† (McKay 9). In reality, Quashie would do this work even if he weren’t required to because he has a sense of pride, â€Å"Although the shade tree looks tempting, we wouldn’t lie down even if we could† (McKay 10-11). Someone working these fields could relate to the pride and craftsmanship that takes to plow in a straight line, or work through the rough Earth. This reading can be taken another step further. It’s not common for a fire to simply catch a town, and for a Negro reading the poem, they may see it as a call to rebel and actually set a town ablaze as vengeance against white society. A rebellion such as setting a rich town ablaze would not be unheard of in a communist state, and it might be a call to arms for Jamaican Negros reading the poems in â€Å"Songs of Jamaica†. Undeniably, there appears to be a lexicon for violence in the poem that may be entirely glossed over by a white, European reader. â€Å"Although the vine is little, it can bear. It wishes for nothing but a little care. You see potato tearing up the ground, you run. You laughing, you must think it’s fun† (McKay 16-20). As stated earlier, a European audience may feel this is simply Quashie denouncing that his work is difficult, and that he’s just announcing his woes in a silly way, and that the whole thing just merrily amuses the white plantation owner. However, if you choose to look at this through the perspective of a Negro who is craving to break free of their oppressors, it can have an entirely different reading. Quashie planting seeds can be seen as planting the seeds of an uprising. The imagery of potatoes coming up from the ground seems comical at first, but if you’re an oppressed worker, you might see this as the crops being metaphorical for the workers rising forth to take revenge against the plantation owners. Even as Quashie explains to Buccra that he’s serious, Buccra seems to completely blow him off as if he’s â€Å"making a fun†, or a funny joke, as if the work isn’t taking a serious toll on the Jamaicans. This kind of sentiment can be seen in the final stanza, wherein Claude McKay seemingly dismisses everything he’s talked about earlier, â€Å"Yet still the hardships always melt away, whenever it comes around to reaping day† (McKay 25-26). A white, European reader may look at Quashie’s dismissal of all his earlier complaining, as if to say, â€Å"Oh well, it may have been back breaking labor, but at least the potatoes are good for eating! In reality, there may be a darker reading here that a Jamaican potato farmer would be more apt to catch onto. The imagery of â€Å"reaping day† seems to also imply that if the Buccra doesn’t start taking him seriously, the Grim Reaper, or in this case, the workers that are being taken advantage of, may make their troubles melt away by simply rising up and doing some reaping of their own that has nothing to do with crops. This does not mean, however, that McKay necessarily wanted a revolution. It may have been more of a last resort. Indeed, he makes is clear in â€Å"Old England† that he has great respect for British culture. â€Å"McKay still expressed admiration for the British. He believed that the Jamaicans had acquired their democratic spirit and respect for law and order from the British† (Tillery 14). Indeed, in â€Å"Old England†, McKay expresses great desires to visit what he calls his homeland. He refers to Queen Victoria as â€Å"Queen Victoria the Good†, and longs to visit the place where poets and kings alike are buried. Again, however, there appears to be a discrepancy in what different readers may interpret. While it may all appear reverent, he makes it clear that in death, the poets and kings is all alike, and that in their graves, the kings and queens find a place to hang up their crowns. This may symbolize McKay’s gripe with the wealthy class, and how they appear to have a disconnect with the working class Jamaican’s, despite his own love for Britain, and may not deserve a spot next to say the poets that inspired McKay’s writing. In conclusion, Claude McKay uses dialectical tools to draw different readers to different readings. What one person may see as a happy go lucky poem about a potato farmer may really represent a call to arms. His use of manipulating the dialect to create multiple readings causes the reader to question what exactly his true audience is what he’s trying to tell them through word choice and double meaning.

Realism In International Affairs Essay

Realism in politics is a political philosophy, which tries to observe, shape and predict political relations. It is based upon assumption that power should be the primary goal of any political act, both in international or domestic sphere. As far as domestic affairs are concerned, this theory states that political figures are supposed to direct all efforts to maximizing their power. Accordingly, in the international sphere nation should aim at maximizing its power among other states. This theory can be regarded as a prescription to be followed by politicians and states or as a description of current affairs of the state or politician pursuing self-interest. Realism in politics is often defined as a principle of power supremacy, and it has a long history since the ancient times. It was reflected in Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. This theory was also touched by Machiavelli in his writing The Prince, as well as by other outstanding philosophers like Spinoza, Hobbes and Rousseau. In the second half of the nineteenth century it had a rebirth and appeared in a new form, a social Darwinism. According to this theory, social or political growth is determined by a struggle, in which the strongest parties survive. According to the theory of political realism, interests should be satisfied by means of power exercise, and the world is defined by competing powers. In this context, the adherents of Marxist theory refer to classes, while other political theorists to states. (Ahrensdorf) Political realism is explained in the following way: â€Å"Prior to the French Revolution in which nationalism as a political doctrine truly entered the world’s stage, political realism involved the political jurisdictions of ruling dynasties, whilst in the nineteenth century, nationalist sentiments focused realists’ attentions on the development of the nation-state, a policy that was later extended to include imperialist ambitions on the part of the major Western powers-Britain and France, and even Belgium, Germany and the United States were influenced by imperialism. † (Viotti, Kauppi). Important difference between social darwinism and other branches political realism is as follows: adherents of the former state that some nations are destined to rule over other nations, while other part of realists pays most attention to the need of ensuring that nation, culture or politician sets or secures own needs before needs or interests of others. Political realism in international affairs Political realism of an expressive kind stands for the suggestion that international commonwealth is distinguished by anarchy, since there is no absolute world government, that could rule with an all-purpose policy code. Since the anarchy does not need a chaotic nature, thus allowing member nations be involved into trading schemes or treaties, the theorists mostly agree that morality or law are not the dominating factors outside one particular state. In this particular characteristic this hypothesis agrees with the Hobb’s theory: â€Å"Where there is no common Power, there is no Law: where no Law, no Injustice ? if there be no Power erected, or not great enough for our security; every man will and may lawfully rely on his own strength and art, for caution against all other men. † (Hobbes, Leviathan , Part I, Ch. 13 ‘Of Man’, and Part II, Ch. 17, ‘Of Commonwealth, cited in Griffiths, O’Callaghan). Respectively, without any supreme international force, nations treat each other with hostility or fear, and it damages the system. Another aspect of the theory is an assumption that a state can promote its interest against the needs and interests of other states, it proves that international surrounding is not stable. Any order is affected if states compete for the same need, and under such circumstances, as the realists state, the nation may rely on itself only. There are definite contradictions that can be found in the concept of political realism: descriptive realism may be regarded as a true theory or false concept. Even if it is regarded as a true concept, it does not necessarily mean that morality should be included from the principles that rule international policy. One of the strong forms if descriptive type of political realism states that states should be self-seeking, that they should build their policy basing upon desired gains of the nation and should not ignore their interests and demands. Simultaneously, â€Å"if descriptive realism is held, it is as a closed theory, which means that it can refute all counter-factual evidence on its own terms (for example, evidence of a nation offering support to a neighbor as an ostensible act of altruism, is refuted by pointing to some self-serving motive the giving nation presumably has–it would increase trade, it would gain an important ally, it would feel guilty if it didn’t, and so on), then any attempt to introduce morality into international affairs would prove futile. † (Stern) The assessment of expressive kind of political realism power depends upon the chance of understanding political reasons, which requests understanding the causes of state diplomats and representatives. The pattern of officers’ relations, their motives and actions is complex. Waltz says that the closed nature of expressive realism includes a oppose scheme that nations does not serve any needs at all, or can serve the needs of others only. The logical value of the three theories resulting from this concept offers that preferring one condition to another is an optional decision, if an assumption is accepted, or not. (Waltz) The present international sphere of nations’ interaction is defined by the lack of supreme power. In the past, wars were a strong argument in support of political realism – there have been more than 200 wars since the middle of the 17th century. This condition seems to have a chaotic nature, and some thinkers are likely to compare it to domestic anarchy, when state government is not able to rule the state: ‘Without a world power, war, conflict, tension, and insecurity have been the regular state of affairs; just as a domestic government removes internal strife and punishes local crime, so too ought a world government control the activities of individual states-overseeing the legality of their affairs and punishing those nations that break the laws, and thereby calming the insecure atmosphere nations find themselves in†. (Kegley, Wittkopf) At the same time, such comparison leads to a conclusion that the relations between the state and the individuals are alike. Such argument includes the personification of the states and collectivization of individuals. Some theorists state that the relations between states and the citizens cannot be compared to the relations between the states and the relations of the individuals, and therefore should be differently judged. In addition to the propositions of descriptive realism, there are notions offered by prescriptive political realism, for instance, the statement that a certain nation should follow its own interests and needs independently of the relevant state of international relations. This theory can be divided into various aspects, depending upon proclaimed interest of the nation and the allowability of the tools that would be used to reach desired goals. As far as the national interest is concerned, there are distinct opinions of what it should be, but all of them agree that the state should be self-efficient in economical and political sphere, cutting dependency on other nations. (The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations) The statement supporting the supremacy of self-sufficiency of the state has appeared long time ago. Plato and Aristotle referred to this aspect as a ground necessary to provide security of the national power, they insisted that nation should import only insignificant commodities. This economic theory has been used for supporting political realism, especially in the 18th century the theorists of political sphere stated that the political power of the nation is reached and supported in the terms of reduced import and increased export only. Difference between neorealism and classical realism Conflict is regarded as a key element in politics, including international affairs, by all realists, however, there are two different sources of conflict, pointed out by different realist authors. For instance, classical realism theory starts with a pessimistic viewpoint on the human nature. As the adherents of this theory believe, selfish, competitive and striving for power behavior in inherent for the humans. Hans Morgenthau states that each individual is enforced to act uncaringly to protect himself, and this situation leads to the disagreement: â€Å"What the one wants for himself, the other already possesses or wants, too. Struggle and competition ensue†¦. Man cannot [therefore] hope to be good, but must be content with not being too evil†. (Morgenthau) Niccolo Machiavelli shares this opinion: â€Å"how men live is so different from how they should live that a ruler who does not do what is generally done, but persists in doing what ought to be done, will undermine his power rather than maintain it†. (cited in The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations). These ideas performed specific approach to a strategy applied in international affairs: a careful statesman must avoid optimistic view on others’ aims and intentions and limits their initiatives to those that may help if the situation goes better. For instance, Henry Kissinger warned the leaders of the USA and Israeli against the intentions of Syria and Palestine, during the negotiations on Middle East conflict: â€Å"It is likely that agreements will be reached †¦ because the alternatives will, in the end, seem more dangerous. But when this happens, we must avoid euphoria†¦. An agreement will represent a strategic interlude for the Syrians and most of the Palestinians, not a commitment to a new world order. † (Legro, Moravcsik) In other words, classical type of realism regards conflict and competition as essential element of international affairs, referring the origin of conflict to the human nature. Humans struggle with each other for resources they need and strive for power to rule over other people. This is a set pattern, which cannot be changed. Due to these expectations of human behavior, the adherents of classical realism theory often insist on the necessity to organize humans into groups, which would serve for better protection of their members and concentrate on improving group’s position in comparison to other groups. Another theory, neorealism or structural realism, refers the origin of conflict to interstate condition, the lack of legally restricting rules in particular, rather than to human nature. The adherents of neorealism state, that â€Å"the absence of a neutral authority that can enforce rules and agreements creates an insecure, self-help situation in which all policy makers are pressured to act competitively, regardless of their individual natures or personal preferences. † (Kegley, Wittkopf) This statement is not new, it appeared in the 17th century in the work of Thomas Hobbes. In his writing Leviathan he states that the in the world, which lacks supreme power that could provide security, people has a right to use any tools to protect themselves. Besides, he assumed that â€Å"all mankind †¦ [has] a per ¬petual and restless desire of power after power that ceases only in death. † (cited in The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations) Modern tradition in neorealist theory declines the assumption that individuals strive for power due to a natural inclination, and concentrates on the motives produced by a lack of a neutral power that can set rules for interstate relations. For instance, Kenneth Waltz says that â€Å"the main cause of war must lie in some regularity at the level of the interstate system, rather than within particular leaders or states, since war has been waged for all sorts of specific reasons and by â€Å"good† as well as â€Å"bad† leaders. † (Waltz) According to Waltz, this regularity is the pressure, produced by anarchy: â€Å"Without enforceable interstate rules, states must either resist possible domination by others through a policy of balancing against others’ power capabilities, or by bandwagoning-joining a coalition that supports an aggres ¬sive state, in hopes of turning its aggression elsewhere†. (Waltz) Waltz states that large states possess the capacity and desire to withstand the strength of other states. This results, as he sees it, in a tendency of competitiveness among states independently of the views of their leaders concerning domestic policy. Actually, the prediction of this statement is not much different from the assumption made by the adherents of classical realism. As soon as it is based on the assumptions concerning human nature, classic realists expect that the makers of policy also act competitively. The difference lies in the way this conclusion is reached. As Waltz sees it, this is the pressure of competitiveness, produced by anarchy, which significantly influences the human behavior. Those strategies that are oriented on power, appear because the leaders are forced to struggle for security, rather than because they desire just to obtain power. Realistic approach in modern international affairs Realism was a concept for analyzing world politics since remote times, because much of humankind history was characterized by wars. As soon as the states’ interests come across in conflict, it is expected that leaders pay much attention to their positions in power. â€Å"The classical realist worldview appealed to many statesmen during the period that states were evolving in Western Europe-an era rife with conflict, as medieval forms of rule broke down and rulers asserted new claims to authority against feudal lords or the Pope. It jumped to the United States when the experiences of World War II were followed by the onset of the Cold War. Neorealism later emerged when the bipolarity of the Cold War drew analysts’ attention to the effects of the structure of the interstate system†. (Lieven, Hulsman). At present, ethical realism is offered to the USA as a leading principle that should define the foreign policy of this state. As it is described by the supporters of this type of realism, it bases upon â€Å"prudence; a concentration on possible results rather than good intentions; a close study of the nature, views and interests of other states, and a willingness to accommodate them when these do not contradict America’s own truly vital interests; and a mixture of profound American patriotism with an equally profound awareness of the limits on both American power and on American goodness† (Lieven, Hulsman). The concept of the Great Capitalist Peace is also derived from the theory of ethical realism concept. It is based upon the ideas of Kennan and Morgenthau, including the concepts of diplomacy purposes and international order. It proclaims that a global order is needed to be agreed by the largest states, to provide the promotion of their interests and reduce the threat of terrorists. Accordingly, the USA power is treated as an element, vital for keeping the Great Capitalist Peace. At the same time, it is added that the limits should be put on the US power, in order to legitimate interests and needs of other states should be satisfied. Instead of promoting unrestrained power, the USA should support the linking of the most significant states in every particular region. For instance, in the Middle East region the USA should use its power and resources to support creation of a regional patter for the states, including Syria and Iran, and to make this pattern functional enough to regulate Iraq conflict after withdrawal of the US troops from this country. (Lieven, Hulsman) As far as the Far East is concerned, the USA should paid attention to the primary role, which should be played by China in this region, but not by the United States. China is treated as a state, ready to act in cooperation with other states and act responsibly, that’s why USA should allow China to occupy a leading position in finding resolutions to the actions of the regime in the North Korea, and other possible challenges in this region. (Lieven, Hulsman) Sources Waltz, K. N. Structural Realism after the Cold War. International Security. Summer. 2000 Morgenthau, H. J. Politics Among Nations: the Struggle for Power and Peace. McGraw Hill: NY, 1993. Stern, G. The Structure of International Society. London: Pinter Publishers, 2000. The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations. edited by Baylis, J. and S. Smith. Oxford University Press, 2004 Griffiths, M. , O’Callaghan, T. International Relations: The Key Concepts. London, Routledge, 2002 Kegley, C. Wittkopf, E. World Politics. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005. Viotti, P. R. Kauppi, M. V. International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism. Macmillan Pub Co, 1993. Legro, J. W. Moravcsik, A. Is Anybody Still a Realist? International Security. Fall 1999 Jervis, R. Realism, Neoliberalism, and Cooperation.. International Security. Summer 1999 Ahrensdorf, P. J. Thucydides’ realistic critique of realism. Polity Winter 1997 Lieven, A. Hulsman, J. America’s World Role Has to be Realistic and Moral. October 17, 2006, retrieved at http://www. realisticforeignpolicy. org/archives/2006/10/americas_world. php.