different cultural beliefs about death

different cultural beliefs about death Person, Culture and Medicine Alexandra Lamb â€Å"Human Behaviour is essentially the same across groups and populations.† Biological death is inevitable. For all humans, death is the exclamation point marking the end of a life, the end of a journey; however it is approached and for however long. This is the universal biological condition for all humans. According to Benjamin Franklin, â€Å"†¦Everything appears to promise that it will last. But in this world nothing can be said to be certain except death and taxes.† (Curran 1975) It is in how we live our lives that we see the breadth of human cultural and psychological variation (Seeman, 2010), leading us to discover a great diversity of meanings regarding death and dying, spanning across all groups and populations (Charmaz, 1997). â€Å"Cross cultural [variation embodies] not just different opinions or beliefs, but different ways of everyday living and different systems.† (Jecker Carrese Pearlman, 1995, p. 6) At the most basic level we are all â€Å"built† the same. Death is a complicated process that is the result of the breakdown of the body’s systems. We all live, until the chaos in our body, caused by either natural causes or a forced external factor, is too much for all the intricate systems to work together as a coherent whole (Badham, 1996). Despite the advancement of technology and medical progress, there is no stopping everyone eventually facing death. Whilst biologically we are all essentially the same, from a cultural and psychological perspective, we all behave very differently. This can be seen by considering the bond between a parent and a child, which is said to be the most significant, powerful and enduring human relationship (Parkes Laungani Young, 2003,). Thus, the death of a child is acknowledged as the worst possible event, one that gives the deepest emotional impact. In this tragic event, we can see marked behavioural differences across and within cultures and so it is a good example to use to examine the differences in human behaviour in the face of death. Nations, as well as individuals, all live with very distinctive ideas and beliefs around how to deal with death (Charmaz, 1997). Most cultures are similar in that they attribute unique significance to a child’s death. Biologically many aspects of a parent-child relationship are pre-programmed from conception however, each of these characteristics are developed within a specific family, social and cultural context (Parkes Laungani Young, 2003,). These wider influences are what greatly shape the meaning and experience of the relationship for both parent and child and thus influence the meaning of death. This makes the emotional impact of parental bereavement unique. For example, in Western Societies, parents are expected to grieve in private and return to normal activities soon after the child’s death, where as in Egypt, a mother may be withdrawn and mute up to seven years after the child’s death and this is considered normal. A Balinese mother would be considere d normal if she remained cheerful and calm after her child’s death, as her culture believes that emotional upset makes one vulnerable to illness (Parkes Laungani Young, 2003,). â€Å"Grieving and death rituals vary across cultures and are often heavily influenced by religion† (Lobar Youngblut Brooten 2006, p. 45). For example whilst the traditional burial is common around the world, the rituals that are associated with it vary. In areas influenced by Islamic and Jewish faiths, the corpse is washed and dressed in a shroud and placed in a simple wooden coffin (in areas where coffins are used). In China, where Confucian beliefs dominate, thick wooden coffins packed with clothing and shrouds are used to delay decay and in Christian-dominated regions, bodies are dressed in normal clothing and placed in a coffin made of either chipboard, wood or metal. (Canning Szmigin 2010) The combination of both structural (cultural) and individual factors that impacts the experience of death is dynamic. (Howarth, 2007) Not every member of a particular ethnic group will share the same beliefs and values and other aspects such as social status, economic position, gender, sexuality, age will also have an impact on experiences and beliefs which when combined give meaning to the experiences of death and dying (Howarth, 2007). For example, the prevalence of child mortality also influences the experience of death. In developed countries, where changes to nutrition and sanitation and the evolution of medicine have made childhood mortality rare, a death of a child is more likely to be perceived as tragic. Whereas in developing countries, where the death of a child occurs much more often and thus is considered inevitable, mourning may only last a few days (Parkes Laungani Young, 2003,). Each person has their own beliefs about death, which are generated through experiences at a social, cultural and individual level. Universally, there is a level of respect shown for the dead and there are different â€Å"accepted† practices depending on the age, gender, social status and cause of death of the individual. (Bradbury, 1999) However, all of the beliefs around death are determined by the way the individual lives, which is why there is such diversity with regards to the biological condition that is an inevitable human fact. Just in this discussion of how different people across different groups and populations approach death and dying, a lack of conformity with the statement â€Å"Human Behaviour is essentially the same across groups and populations,† has been shown. Parallels can be drawn between people, but vast differences can also be highlighted. (Seeman, 2010) We begin and we end in much the same way, but the way we live our lives is remarkably different . Much can be learned about the breadth of human variation by examining the way we approach death and dying: â€Å"Our ways of dying are our ways of living. Or should I say our ways of living are our ways of dying?† -Toloki the Professional Mourner (Seeman, 2010, p. 1) References Badham, P. Ballard, P. (1996) Facing Death- An Interdisciplinary Approach. Cardiff, University of Wales Press. Bradbury, M. (1999) Representations of Death- A Social Psychological Perspective. New York, Routledge. Canning, L. Szmigin, I. 2010, ‘Death and disposal: The universal, environmental dilemma,’ Journal of Marketing Management, vol. 26, viewed 28 August 2014, (electronic Scopus). Charmaz, K. Howarth, G. Kellehear, A. 1997, The Unknown Country: Death in Australia, Britain and the USA. Great Britain, Macmillan Press Ltd. Curran, C. 1975, ‘Death and Dying’, Journal of Religion and Health, vol. 14, viewed 28 August 2014, (electronic Scopus). Howarth, G. 2007, Death and Dying- A Sociological Introduction. Cambridge, Polity Press. Jecker, N. Carrese, J. Pearlman, R. 1995, ‘Caring for Patients in Cross-Cultural Settings’, The Hastings Center Report, vol. 25, p.6, viewed 28 August 2014, (electronic Scopus). Lobar, S. Youngblut, J. Brooten, D. 2006, ‘Cross-cultural beliefs, ceremonies, and rituals surrounding death of a loved one,’ Peadiatric Nursin, vol. 32, p. 44, viewed 28 August 2014, (electronic Scopus). Parkes, C. Laungani, P. Young, W. 2003, Death and Bereavement Across Cultures. Routledge. Seeman, E. (2010) Death in the New World- Cross Cultural Encounters. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press.

Film Analysis Troy (2004) | Historical Accuracy of Troy

Film Analysis Troy (2004) | Historical Accuracy of Troy As generations continue to revolutionize, various new prospects lie ahead for the many inhabitants of earth, no matter what corner they live in. At a time when technology is changing so rapidly, the histories, traditions and cultures of the past are sometimes forgotten, if not lost altogether. To counter this, Hollywood directors and producers alike create fantastical films that bring to life the many stories and legends that are carried down through generations, but have a chance of being lost forever. One of the stories that was written down rather than told was Homers epic poem, the Illiad which was basically the legend of the Trojan War. The story which is thought to be based on history was turned into a film in 2004 by director Wolfgang Petersen. The films plot is based on the King of Mycenae, Agamemnon, who has forced the kingdoms of Greece into a loose alliance after decades of war. Menelaus, the King of Sparta and Agamemnons brother, strives to make peace with Troy, who is th e most powerful rival to the emerging nation but when the Trojan prince, Paris, steals away Menelauss wife, Helen, Agamemnon strives to get her back for his brother and in the meantime, using the event as an opportunity to fight Troy and bring it down, so that Sparta could be the strongest Greek nation. Although an ingenious plot, based on the Greek epic poem, many things can be questioned, as it is unknown if the epic poem was even based on history itself. A film that is historically inaccurate gives no benefit to its viewers as the story can be so twisted and changed that it is no longer, a tale of history, tradition or culture. When examined meticulously, it is clearly evident however, that the film Troy, is historically accurate as it is based on true facts from the ancient Greek life. The military, portrayed through fighting formations, weapons, and naval warfare, the culture of the Greeks portrayed through burial customs, belief in gods and architecture as well as class struct ure, portrayed through the roles of women, the respect to the king, and the respect to the Myrmidons, Achilles fighting group, are all pieces of evidence that lead to the verdict that the film Troy is historically accurate. The military and its different parts that it is made up of are essential to any nation, particularly one which is emerging to be the most powerful. The military not only protects the nation from invaders but also helps in the conquering of new territories to expand the nation so that it can grow. Expansion and conquering enemies all bring up a nations status, which is why the Greeks fought with each other to gain power and respect from others. Part of the militaries practices which were essential to its existence were fighting formations. The fighting formations of the Greeks were tightly formed and organized so that the enemy could not penetrate. The battle line a carefully built wall, the warriors standing with shield touching shield in a solid line. This is likely to have been the position before a battle, with armies drawn up in opposing lines and meeting in this simple formation. The battle probably broke up into a mà ªlà ©e, only after one side had given way, followed by indi vidual duels and single combat.  [1]  It is evident that the fighting formations were strongly structured so that the army appeared not only more powerful and mighty, but more organized and therefore more likely to intimidate the enemy. Once the formations were broken, the warriors fought individually, trying to kill as many of the opponents as possible. This sort of fighting in formation was also portrayed in the film Troy where Hectors army gathered outside of the Trojan walls standing side by side, with their large rectangular shields touching each other for protection. Once battle was initiated however, the men separated and fought individually. This event in the movie was clearly an accurate portrayal of fighting formations in Greece during 1250 B.C.E and thus starts to prove that the film Troy is historically accurate. Another division of the military, one of the most important in fact, is the weapons. Without weapons, battle would be very hard to win because warriors would need to be clever and exceptionally strong so that they could overtake their enemy with their bare hands. Luckily, the Greeks had very developed weapons, which proved to be useful against opponents. Weapons like spears and swords were used extensively in the Greek military, although spears were the first weapon of choice. Swords always seem to have taken second place after spears.  [2]  This is also portrayed in the movie Troy as when Hector faces Achilles in one on one combat, they use their spears first and then their swords. Spears in the film were constructed in such a manner that they looked like they were supposed to. Throwing spears (javelins) were usual, but some were obviously thrusting spears, such as Hectors, which was supposed to be 11 cubits long. Spear shafts were made of ash wood.  [3]  Although it is impo ssible to tell the exact length of the thrusting spears used in the film, they were pretty long, visually looking to be about 5 metres, which is approximately the length of 11 cubits. The rod of the spears were all made out of wood, although again, it is impossible to tell whether or not it was particularly out of ash wood, however it was definitely made out of wood. Therefore it is obvious that the film Troy sticks to history because of the materials and props they used on set to film the production, the same materials and objects which were used over three thousand years ago. The last division in the military which was of high importance to the Greeks, was naval or the sea category. Without naval ships, armies could not have gotten around and travelled to other areas to expand their territories or challenge their enemy as a consequence for a wrongdoing. The Greeks used many different types of warships, although the ones that were most common during the Trojan War and which were described in Homers epic poem Illiad were Pentekonters. Two types of ships are mentioned by Homer: light, fast ships powered by 20 oars, and heavier warships powered by 50 oars. These 50-oared galleys had one level only. They appear to have been built mainly from pine wood, with oars of polished spruce. while the bow terminated in a nearly vertical prow with a metal sheathed ram at the waterline. Pentekonters had a mast with a square sail that was taken down before going into battle  [4]  In the movie Troy the ships used also had one level of oarsmen and about 50 men rowing wit h oars. The front of the ship had an almost vertical prow that was slightly curved to the shape of the ship that helped stop the ship when it reached the shores. The ships used in the film also had square shaped white masts that were lowered when the ship reached the shore. Evidently, the portrayal of the military in the film, whether naval or on land, was historically accurate because the things depicted were truthful to history and actual Greek objects and occurrences. The culture of any nation, whether emerging or already established plays an important role in the everyday lives of citizens. Culture is a development in inhabited area that shows how prosperous the place is, because the main focus is no longer on just mere survival, as there are things to do. Religion, architecture, art, beauty, sports are just some of the aspects of culture that show how rich a nation is, because the people can have an average income, but if they are culturally satisfied, they will be happier than those who have no culture. Culture played an important role in the lives of the Greeks and they had advanced burial customs, religion and architecture, which made their nation a better place to live. Burial customs are one aspect of culture that was sophisticated and there was always a belief in the afterlife in the Greek culture, no matter what religion. Inhumation was most common in Mycenaean times, but by c. 1200 BC cremation became the main method of burial and was un iversal  [5]  Evidently, by the time of the Trojan War, cremation was used most often and this is depicted in the film as well because everyone who dies in the film, whether it was Patroclus, Hector or any other warrior; they were all collected and burned. In cremation, bodies were burned on a pyre soldiers killed in warfare were only rarely buried on the battlefield. Very often they were cremated on the battle site and their ashes taken home.  [6]  It is obvious that soldiers were generally not buried at the site of the battle in which they fought, rather just cremated and the ashes were gathered and taken home. This was the case in the film Troy when many soldiers died; chariots collected the bodies and carried them just outside of the battle field where there was a huge fire where other soldiers would cremate the bodies. Again it is clearly portrayed that the film Troy was historically accurate because it followed the burial customs that the ancient Greeks practiced thems elves. Religion was another important aspect of the ancient Greeks life and they all worshipped some gods. To some Greeks, certain gods were unimportant, but others were considered almighty to them. To the Trojans, the God Apollo was of high importance. A god worshipped throughout the Greek world, and the embodiment of moral excellence He was the god of prophecy, healing, archery. He was also a god of light (sometimes being identified with the Sun and with the god Helios).  [7]  In the film Troy the main worship was to Apollo and this is portrayed through frequent reference to Apollo, when King Priam or his men were prophesising. Everything centered on Apollo, who Priam prayed to nightly and to whom he assumed the wooden Trojan horse by the Greeks was built. The precious temple of Troys patron god Apollo (complete with 5 foot high solid gold statue of Apollo) is located outside the city, down the beach.  [8]  This was the case in the film because the Trojans created a temple just ou tside the city and in front of it was a massive gold statue of Apollo. Clearly, the historical accuracy of the film Troy is yet again proved as it supports the facts from ancient Greek religion. Another form of culture is the art through mainly architecture that is apparent in any nation that is on the rise to being one of the best. Architecture shows how culturally rich a society is because again the main focus is no longer survival, but other things as well, which show how prosperous a nation may be. Troy had a massive wall that protected the city on the inside and that was their main form of architecture. The walls of fortifications are an average of 16.5 ft thick and are built of massive stones weighing up to 10 tons.  [9]  Evidently the fortifications at Troy were extremely large which is why no one could penetrate them until the Greeks created the Trojan horse. This is also portrayed in the movie Troy when the Greeks attack but cannot penetrate the walls until they sneak in through the horse. The walls used in the film are visibly made out of stone and very large, although it is impossible to tell the exact measurements of the fortification. Overall, the portrayal of culture in the film Troy is historically accurate because the burial customs, religion and architecture portrayed in the film is the same as that of the ancient Greek world. The class structure of the ancient Greek world was much different than ours today, although some things are similar to todays world. Historical accuracy in the class structure system is key to a successful depiction of the ancient Greek world in film. The respect given to women, to the king, and to Achilles elite warrior group, the Myrmidons, all are historically accurate because it is very similar to the respect given in the ancient Greek world. The respect given to women in the ancient Greek time period was small but there were enjoyable parts to it. Female characters of the upper class led a relatively independent life. Although women were technically of citizen status, they had no rights of citizenship. Women had no political rights and could take no part whatsoever in government.  [10]  Evidently women had small respect but those of the upper class were fairly independent, being allowed to do more than the poorer women, although none of them could participate in politics. Th is is also portrayed in the film Troy. The women of the palace who were princesses or so took no part in the politics of the palace where all the men assembled, led by the king and his princes to plan out things for Troy. Although women had no role in politics and government, they played an important role in religion. Within religion women did play an important role, such as a dominant role at funerals, weddings. There were many priestesses.  [11]  This is also portrayed within the film Troy as when Briseis, the cousin of Hector and Paris, decided to become Apollos servant she was commended and it was said that Apollo is going to have a wonderful servant. Although women had this advantage, they were considered weak and a reference to this is made in the movie when it is said that peace is for women and weak by Agamemnon. Evidently using that metaphor, women were considered fragile and therefore peace went straight along with women since peace did not show off nations might or po wer. Evidently, the film Troy is historically accurate because it correctly portrays the respect given to women in the ancient Greek class system. In the ancient Greek world, there was always a lot of respect given to the king of the nation, whether he deserved it or not. Kings were very respected officials and demanded that they were given honour even if they were wrong on something. In the film Troy the respect given to the king, particularly Agamemnon was very high although he did not do anything. Odysseus, comments on this to Achilles who gets angry over the fact that warriors are giving the king things that they stole, even though he did nothing at all to deserve the gifts. Odysseus says War is old men talking, and young men dying. Evidently it is portrayed that the king had much respect whether he deserved it or not, and in this case, it is evident that Agamemnon did not deserve the respect that he was being given. Nonetheless, the king continued to be showered with gifts, as warriors were honoured to be in his presence and to be given a promise by him. Achilles elite group of warriors, the Myrmidons, were also a group that was given a lot of respect and was allowed to be different because they were necessary to the winnings of many battles. Although the king, particularly Agamemnon disliked Achilles and his group very much because of their individuality, he used them because of their skill. For example, all Greek warships that sailed had white sails but the ship that was used by the Myrmidons, had a black sail and was a showcase of their individuality. The Myrmidons, led by Achilles were so skilled that when they went out on their own onto the beaches of Troy, instead of waiting for the other Greek ships behind them, Agamemnon complained but soon acknowledged that it was the groups choice to do what they want. Evidently Achilles group, the Myrmidons, had a lot of respect from others, even Agamemnon who let them do what they wanted to, because of the Greek need for them and their skill. Overall class structure and the respect that w as given in the film Troy was historically accurate because it truthfully portrayed women, the king and the Myrmidons. From the beginning of the film Troy directed by Wolfgang Petersen, right to the end, the film proves that it is historically accurate and thus keeps the legend of the Trojan War, written down by Homer through his epic poem the Illiad alive. When analyzing the military portrayed in the film through the fighting formations, weapons and naval warfare, it is evident that the producers stuck to history and made an accurate portrayal of the Greek military. Culture as well is an aspect that proves to be truthful to the ancient Greek world through the portrayal of burial customs, religion and architecture. Finally, class structure and respect is yet another part of the film that remains historically faithful through the portrayal of the respect given to women, the king and Achilles elite group of warriors, the Myrmidons. Overall, it is apparent how new periods of time can still maintain history and portray legends, traditions and cultures of the past accurately, so that the audience can bene fit from the film and the story of the ancient world will never be lost. What Causes Poverty And Inequality? What Causes Poverty And Inequality? Poverty vary across rural and the urban areas. Rural areas have a higher poverty rate than urban areas due to low-wage jobs and a higher rural unemployment. Poverty rises as the area becomes more rural. Poverty could become a very serious issue everywhere. Lack of basic needs can increase the poverty rate. Urban areas are not likely to be affected to poverty but not all places. What is Poverty? For some people poverty could mean being poor or having no money. But to me personally poverty could mean so much more.Its when people lack the basic necessities for survival. For instance they may have been starving, lack of clean water, proper housing, isolated from family and friends, experiencing racism and discrimination, having problem in getting your basic needs, sufficient clothing or medicines and be struggling to stay alive. Poverty can mean different for each individual. It could mean What causes Poverty and Inequality? Some people may think that countries such as MEDCS (more economically developed countries) no one can be poor or if they are, its just due to some failings and problems. However, that is not the case. In reality it is more a measure of inequality. For example, a person who is relatively poor in a rich country usually suffers less material deprivation than someone who is living in a country with low overall standards. In these countries poverty could be an extreme major problem you are more likely to lack basic needs and survival can be more of a struggle, but because the general living standards are lower in these countries, there may be less relative poverty this will be less difference between the poor and the living standards of everybody else. How can poverty affect inequality? Poverty hits children hardest, like every lack of goods and services hurts every other human being. Poverty can damage childrens environment in every way whether it is physical, mental, emotional or spiritual. For example, women who must walk long distances to fetch household water may not be able to fully attend to their children; this may affect their health and development. And children themselves who walk long distances to fetch water for their family have less time to attend school. This problem particularly affects girls. Poverty can lead to malnutrition, which in turn is contributing factor in half of the under -five deaths in developing countries. Approximately 300 million children all around the world go to bed hungry every day. Fulfilling childrens right breaks that cycle. Poverty has been a very big problem in our world today. Poverty can affect inequality, the gap between the rich and the poor which is quite high and often getting wider and wider..People look at term pove rty in a different way depending if the country is poor or rich. World Hunger and Poverty World hunger is a terrible indicator of world poverty. There are many issues causing hunger which are related to factors that cause poverty. These are famine, drought, poor crop yields etc. The causes of hunger are related to the cause of poverty. One of the major causes of the hunger is poverty itself. According to the UNICEF over 9 million people die worldwide each year because of hunger and malnutrition almost 5 million are children. Poverty is transmitted from one generation to the next generation. For example malnourished babies often may give birth to an under -weight baby. These babies are more likely to die, but if they survive they are less likely to grow and develop to their full potential. The first goal of The United Nations Millennium Development Goals is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. UNICEF helps by building national capacitors for primary health care, healthy children become healthy adults. These people will create better lives for themselves, their communities and their countries. Helping the worlds children survive and flourish is another way in which UNICEF is helping. UNICEF also purchases and helps distribute to vaccines to over 40% of children in developing countries. UNICEF along with other governments and non-governmental organizations at national and community levels work to strengthen local health systems and improve at home care for children including re-hydration to save lives of infants with severe diarrhea and other diseases. Reducing Poverty Reducing Poverty should start with children. Every 3.6 seconds one person dies. This mostly applies to small children .Small children around the world die because of poverty. Poverty is a serious issue our world is facing today for countries all around the world especially countries in LEDCS (low economically developed countries). It is most threatening to childrens rights: survival, health and nutrition, education, participation, and protection from harm and exploitation. It creates an environment that is damaging to childrens development in every way mental, physical, emotional and spiritual. How Can Poverty Be Measured? Generally people who have been below at-risk-of poverty line for several years are likely to be in a more extreme situation than those who are only in such a situation for a short time, these people are those who live below the poverty line.  Ã‚  It is also important to measure the length of time that people are living in poverty.  Ã‚  However in many countries, it does not exist covering several consecutive years and this thus limits the possibility to measure those who are longer term below the relative income poverty line and they are likely to be in a worse situation. Global Perspective on Poverty Some countries are much poorer than other countries due to various reasons. Some countries such as USA and China are well developed and most people might not be suffering poverty. But as I said Poverty is present in this world, it does not matter where you are; it is always present. Some countries could be richer and some may still be developing. The gap in equality between countries has been widening in recent year. I think rich countries should be more aware of countries which have more problems due to poverty, this relates the developing countries. This might help the developing countries. The rich countries could help by giving money to provide poor countries food, Shelter, water and human basic needs. Local Perspective on Poverty Countries all round the world have been trying to solve this problem in many ways. For instance Poverty has decreased in Ethiopia for the past few years. Ethiopia is a developing country for now but few years later it is going to be one of the more economically developing countries. Some parts of Ethiopia, especially over the country side the government has helped to give some shelter and some food and water. Some big organizations have been helping try to overcome this issue. The ESCO and the UNICEF should be one of those who have given more consideration due to this issue; this helps our country solve this problem much faster way. Personal Perspectives on Poverty Being poor is a very repellent issue. We are very lucky students; we are able to sleep with our stomach filled and shelter to live in. I feel we are very lucky. Small children go to sleep hungry and die easily. We have the chance to be well educated and become successful. While as children which are poor dont even have money to eat or drink. They usually go to bed hungry. Some dont even have a place to live in this indicates that I think we are very lucky. Our parents have the money to send us to a proper school and we could get educated and become successful if we take our chance and use it properly. Conclusion As a conclusion all I can say is that poverty is the worst thing that could happen to a human being. Poverty doe not only happen in poor countries but it is also present in rich countries. Poverty and Inequality have been a major problem. One of the millennium goals is to solve this problem. If this problem is solved our world would have peace. Adults or children would be happier than before they will not go to bed hungry and this will make them stay alive and go to school. Work-Cited List (MLA CITATION)  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shah,Anup.Causes of Poverty.web.Acessed on 21/11/11  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  UNICEF.Millenium Development Goals.web.Acessed on 21/11/11  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shah,Anup.Causes of Hunger are related to poverty.web.Accessed on 21/11/11  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  European Anti-Poverty Network(EAPN).Poverty and Inequality in the European Union(EU).web.accessed on 21/11/11  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rogers,C.Carolyn.Dimensions of Child Poverty in Rural Areas.web. Accessed on 4/12/11

Mrs. Turpin in Flannery O’Connor’s Revelation Essay -- O’Connor’s shor

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mrs. Turpin in Flannery O’Connor’s short story Revelation, is a prejudice and judgmental woman who spends most of her life prying in the lives of everyone around her. She looks at people not for who they are, but for their race or social standing. In fact, Mrs. Turpin is concerned with race and status so much that it seems to take over her life. Although she seems to disapprove of people of different race or social class, Mrs. Turpin seems to be content and appreciative with her own life. It is not until Mrs. Turpin’s Revelation that she discovers that her ways of life are no better then those she looks down upon and they will not assure her a place in Heaven.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mrs. Turpin shows prejudice in several different aspects of her life. Her prejudice is first seen when she is in the doctor’s waiting room. The story states that â€Å"her little black eyes took in all the patients as she sized up the seating situation.† (339) While in the waiting room, Mrs. Turpin is surrounded by people of many different cultural and social backgrounds. As she gazes around the room Mrs. Turpin immediately begins putting the people into categories. Some she called â€Å"white trash†, others were wealthy and pleasant, and the remainder such as Mary Grace, were ugly. Most of Mrs. Turpin’s free time is also filled with prejudice thoughts. The story states that â€Å"Mrs. Turpin occupied herself at night naming the classes of people.†(341) She spends so much of her life judging other’s lives that she does...

The Reason Behind the Flooding of Great Salt Lake Essay -- Terry Willi

The Reason Behind the Flooding of Great Salt Lake In Refuge, Terry Tempest Williams blames a natural disaster—the overflowing of the Great Salt Lake in Utah--for the destruction of the place she loved most in the world, the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge. What Williams attempts to explain, however, is that this disaster wasn’t really â€Å"natural† at all. Refuge is critiqued by some for being over-dramatized, and Terry Tempest Williams is often criticized for blaming the world and others for the loss of the bird refuge. In fact, Williams is correct when she says that humans are responsible for the flooding of Salt Lake, which was caused by the construction of a railroad causeway that split Great Salt Lake into two bodies of water. The author is not a reckless finger-pointer, she is a realist. In describing the bird refuge before the flooding, Williams goes into great detail about the abundance of birds and vegetation that inhabited her paradise: â€Å"Avocets and black-necked stilts are knee deep in water alongside interstate 80. Flocks of California gulls stand on a disappearing beach†¦I inhale the salty air. It is like ocean, even the lake is steel-blue with whitecaps†(Williams 30). In a visit to the bird refuge with her grandmother, she describes the refuge as a place full of life, with countless birds among beautiful plants and wildlife. Indeed, the bird refuge was a sanctuary to her; there was something magical, she writes, about seeing the thousands of different birds in one place, a sight that kept her going back. The rise of Great Salt Lake engulfed the refuge, and as the flooding continued, the population of birds plummeted, Williams’ sanctuary turned into a graveyard filled with only memories of the birds she grew ... ...e the ones most affected by flooding, are also those where the poorest residents live. In 1987, three pumps were used to pump 800,000 acres of water into the West Pond of Salt Lake in an attempt to even out the water levels on the two sides of the lake. This effort to fix the lakes’ problems, which cost $60 million, became known as the West Desert Pumping Project. The project went on for more than two years, until 2.7 million acre-feet of water, containing 695 million tons of salt, were pumped out. (www.ugs.state.ut.us/online/PI-39/pi39pg08 ) These pumps were successful in balancing the lake’s water levels, and remain on standby in case of another disastrous rise. It remains to be seen, however, whether this corrective measure will restore Great Salt Lake’s wildlife—and particularly the birds that Terry Tempest Williams treasured—to their pre-causeway levels.

Othello Essays -- essays research papers

â€Å"Othello’s stature as a tragic hero is severely compromised by the alacrity with which he turns against his wife, and by his failure to achieve any real self knowledge† To what extent do you agree? Othello’s stature as a tragic hero is severely compromised by the speed and ease with which he turns against his wife, and by his failure to achieve any real self knowledge. In the Shakespearian tragedy of Othello, we witness the character of Othello fall from a position of control in Venetian society due to a combination of different reasons. Othello has a deep self-love for himself, and it is because of this he turns against his wife Desdemona with a great speed and ease. A traditional ‘tragic hero’ portrays four major characteristics: firstly, the tragic hero is a figure of high standing/esteem in the community; secondly, there is an agency that leads to the fall of the hero whether within the hero himself or from an outside figure/source; the third characteristic is a moment of self-realisation or self-awareness and the last characteristic is that the fall of the hero results in death. Othello is portrayed as a well-respected citizen within the Venetian society. He can be seen as an intelligent and heroic military leader whose skill is indeed very valuable and necessary to the state and he knows this. His military success has promoted his position within Venetian society, and as a ‘Moor’ within the white dominated society, he has a strong desire to maintain his social standing, and is prepared to sacrifice anything which threatens his reputation, which leads to the eventual death of Desdemona. Othello is trusted by everyone in Venice being called, â€Å"valiant Othello† and â€Å"brave Othello† and described as â€Å"...more fair than black† (I, iii, 286). He has been given full martial and political command of Cyprus and is a figure of high standing and esteem within the Venetian community. Othello’s flaw or weakness lies in his hubris, or exaggerated pride in himself, and he continually refers to it saying â€Å"Let [Brabantio] do his spite, my services which I have done the signiory / Shall out-tongue his complaints...† (I, ii, 17-19) and that â€Å"...[his] parts, [his] title, and [his] perfect soul / Shall manifest [him] rightly...† (I, ii, 31-32). It is due to his obsession with his pride, his self-esteem and his self image which leads to his loss of self control and hi... ...the sweetest innocent / That did e’er did lift up eye† (V, ii, 197-198), that she was false, and rather than realising his weaknesses and flaws, he takes the blame away from himself saying the murder was planned by fate: â€Å"...O ill-stared wench!..† After he has committed the crime, Othello makes sure that he is remembered as the hero he believed himself to be, once again his hubris encompassing him, saying: â€Å"...I have done the state some service and they know’t: ...Speak of me as I am; nothing extenuate, Nor set down aught in malice...speak Of one that loved not wisely, but too well; Of one not easily jealous but, being wrought, Perplexed in the extreme...† (V, ii, 335-342). Othello’s never accepts his tragic flaw as self-knowledge, nor does he accept responsibility for the death of his innocent wife Desdemona. Othello is unable to see himself as a member of the Venetian society, and â€Å"it is the tension between Othello’s victimisation at the hands of a foreign culture and his own willingness to torment himself† along with the alacrity with which he turns against his wife and his failure to achieve self-knowledge which severely compromise Othello’s stature as a tragic hero.

Alexander Hamilton Essay

I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton. He divined Europe. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand. So begins the biography of Alexander Hamilton on the web page from Revolution to Reconstruction.   Even   Jefferson was in awe of him as he told James Madison in 1795, â€Å"Hamilton is really a colossus . . . without numbers, he is a host within himself.† – quoted by De Coralis. Alexander Hamilton was born in about1757 on the Caribbean island of Nevis. He had no birth certificate so the exact date is disputed, but he always said it was in 1757. He was one of two sons born illegitimately to a French Huguenot mother by an irresponsible Scots father who was later to abandon his family. His mother died of yellow fever when he was only 13, having been imprisoned for adultery at the instigation of her husband , who then managed to successfully sue for all her meagre assets, leaving the two boys with nothing. All his life Hamilton was aware that people knew of his beginnings and discussed them behind his back. After his mother’s death he began to work as clerk to New Yorker Nicolas Cruger. In Cruger’s absence he ran the firm and so even as a teenager he came to learn and to manage the intricacies of international trade – something that was to be in his stead later. He also saw the dark side of trading – slavery, which he came to hate. Eventually he was to co-found an abolitionist society. Another mentor was clergyman Hugh Knox, who tutored him in both humanities and sciences. It was these mentors and other rich islanders who paid for him to study in New York at the then King’s College . (Now Columbia University). Their idea seems to have been that he study medicine and then return to set up practice. That was the theory, but the fact was that he never returned to the islands. He arrived in New York in 1773. In 1774 the first continental Congress met to decide what to do about what they saw as the tyrannical rule of England. Following the Boston Tea Party Hamilton travelled to Boston where he became convinced of the rights of the colonists. The newspapers were full of arguments for and against and Hamilton joined in when he wrote his first pamphlet â€Å"A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress,† According to   Lisa Marie de Coralis on the web page ‘From Revolution to Reconstruction’,   in 1769 Hamilton had written to a friend saying that what better way was there for a young man to change his station in life than in war. His argument was that in war it is one’s abilities rather than one’s background that counts. Considering his background it is hardly a surprising view. In the summer of 1776 the British fleet were sailing towards the city of New York and Hamilton responded quickly to a call for volunteers. He soon became captain of a group of artillerymen, even paying for their uniforms himself. He and his company fought alongside Washington and his men at Long Island and in other battles that year   His talents were recognised and he became, aged 20, aide-de-camp to General George Washington with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. It seems with hindsight that he made the right choice, for he had earlier turned down similar positions with other military leaders. He continued to be close to Washington for most of the time and was eventually among those who composed Washington’s farewell address in 1796. Valley Forge in the winter of 1777 -78 was an important time for Hamilton. Washington had some 9,000 men forced to scavenge for supplies, because of the inability of Congress to act on their behalf. All around men were starving and Hamilton realised that the   Americans would become a laughing stock if their government was seen to be unable to support its troops. There was to be an alliance with France and Hamilton, probably using the French he had leant from his mother, became interpreter. In the summer of 1779 rumours began to circulate that Hamilton was to lead a move to overthrow congress and install Washington as a dictator. Colonel John Brooks told Hamilton of these rumors adding that he had heard someone say † Mr. Hamilton could be no ways interested in the defence of this country; and therefore, was most likely to pursue such a line of conduct as his great ambition dictated.† His colleagues realised that the rumours were false. Hamilton was frustrated with Congress, no more. It   did make one thing plain though, Hamilton was, and always would be viewed as an outsider – a non-American, a major reason why, despite his massive abilities he is not included in the list of American Presidents. Other reasons given are his affair and the fact that his politics and reasoning were way above the heads of most Americans. Hamilton on the other hand firmly links himself with the American cause as when he wrote to Congressman Duane in 1780 â€Å"the defects of our present system, and the changes necessary to save us from ruin.† –   See chapter 8 ‘From Revolution to Reconstruction. In the letter he sees America as other nations would see her, with a weak congress, unable to fulfil its commitments. Much of the letter is about his financial plans for the country – not surprising for someone who was to become its treasurer. Washington was not known as a placid man. There were several spats and then in 1781, Washington felt that Hamilton was not respecting him and the two fell out. In April of that year he resigned as aide-de camp and went to stay with his new wife in Albany. From here he began his first essays on American government. â€Å"The Continentalist,† In 1781 he finally had his first command and victory at Yorktown. In January of 1782 his first child was born and two months later he resigned from the military, being appointed as Receiver of Taxes for New York. At the same time he began to study law, completing a three year course in just a few months. In 1782 he also became a congressman.   He is quoted by De Coralis as writing to Lafayette:- I have been employed for the last ten months in rocking the cradle and studying the art of fleecing my neighbours. I am now a Grave Counsellor   at law, and shall soon be a grand member of Congress. The Legislature   at their last session took it into their heads to name me pretty unanimously one of their delegates.† As a lawyer he acted in many cases involving anti-loyalists laws. One of his most important cases ensured that federal laws were to be treated as supreme over those of individual states. Hamilton could be quite outspoken. In June 1780 he write to John Laurens describing   his fellow Americans as having ‘the passiveness of sheep †¦they are determined not to be free†¦I f we are saved France and Spain must save us.’ Eventually of course they rose to the occasion, though France did contribute to the success by not allowing Britain to make full use of its military and naval powers. Despite his American nationality he admired   the British system of government . He said when addressing congress in June 1787 ‘I believe the British government forms the best model the world ever produced.’ Hamilton is one of the anonymous contributors to the Constitution, the final text of which was drawn up by James Madison in July of 1787, according to Cohen and Major ( page 511). First of all Hamilton asked for a revision of the articles of confederation. He called them to arms saying as quoted in volume 4 of his papers:- Let Americans disdain to be instruments of European greatness! Let the thirteen states, bound together by strict and indissoluble union, concur in erecting one great American system. He signed the constitution in September 1787 and when Washington took on the presidency he knew that Hamilton was the best man to take on the country’s finance and he became the first, and perhaps the greatest, Secretary to the Treasury in 1789. He served in this post from 1789 to 1795, during which period he succeeded in restoring the country’s financial position. Early in his period of office he produced lengthy reports for congress about what the country needed financially including a system of taxation and funding of the national debt. The report controversially included the need for a national bank, an idea that Washington for one did not at first approve of. In 1792 there was a stock market panic and from this time on Hamilton came under attack for his policies. In 1804 there was to be an election. During the run up Hamilton, then leader of the Federalist party and famous for arguing for freedom of speech, was heard , on more than one occasion, to be vilifying Aaron Burr, the Republican leader, vice-president and a long time enemy. He had already come out heavily against Burr in the press. Burr demanded satisfaction in the form of a duel, and despite the fact that his beloved son had died in a duel, Hamilton, after the interchange of several letters, finally conceded. It was his eleventh and last duel. Hamilton fired firs t and missed. Burr’s first shot, hit Hamilton in lower abdomen, paralysed him and he died at home the following day, having confessed to hi s doctor that he had had no intention of hitting Burr. He died   leaving a wife, seven children and a mountain of debts, having frequently undercharged clients, subsidised newspapers and having refused an army pension. The financial genius had failed to provide for himself. Neither man benefited as Burr was indicted for murder, though duelling was not outlawed in New Jersey, and though later acquitted, Burr’s political career was over, as of course was Hamilton’s. Bibliography Crystal, D. editor, The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995 Hamilton,A. Address to the Constitutional Congress, 11th June 1787, quoted by Cohen,M. and Major,J. in History in Quotations, Cassell, London ,2004. Hamilton, A., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton vol2 (1961) pages 347-8, volume 4,   page 345. Electronic Sources De Coralis, L.M. From Revolution to Reconstruction, Biography of Alexander Hamilton found 2nd June 2007   http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/B/hamilton/hamilxx.htm

Lord of the Flies: The end of innocence Essay

Lord of the Flies. ‘The end of innocence and the darkness of man’s heart.’ Do you agree that these are the central concerns of Golding’s novel? Please justify your answer making close reference to the text. In his novel, Lord of the Flies, Golding raises the issue of ‘the end of innocence and the darkness of man’s heart’ in his portrayal of certain characters. However, he contrasts such characters with those who possess the human spirit, that is, a humanity and decency that can survive the most extreme circumstances. By contrasting characters of Jack and Ralph, Golding raises the theme of good versus evil, loss of innocence, the struggle for power and his central concern seems to be that there is a thin veneer between civilised man and the savage. Though Ralph turns out to be a good leader because of his moral principles, initially the boys choose him over Jack because of his appearance: â€Å"you could see now that he could have made a boxer†. However, as leader, Ralph is faced with adult problems which force him to lose his innocence and develop as a character. For example, Ralph reveals Piggy’s name to the others after Piggy had asked him not to, but he experiences empathy towards him: â€Å"Ralph, looking with more understanding at Piggy, saw that he was hurt and crushed. This causes him to mature and treat Piggy with more respect. Ralph attempts to maintain order among the boys by constructing a set of rules. For example, the fact that one must be holding the conch to speak. The conch represents a sense of order and democracy among the boys and Golding describes it as ‘precious’ and ‘valuable’ yet ‘fragile’. The fact that the rules get ignored gives a sense that Ralph is losing power and the boys are gradually deteriorating into savages. The idea of the loss of order is reinforced by Golding when Ralph notices that the conch is â€Å"losing its shine.† By the end of the novel, Ralph is the only one not to degenerate into a savage and retains his dignity. This is demonstrated when Samneric wanted to wear paint but Ralph refused to wear it: â€Å"we won’t wear paint because we’re not savages.† His fight for good against evil leads him into a situation quite beyond him because the standards he represents are crushed in a world run by Jack’s kind of rules. Jack epitomizes the corrupt dictator in society. From the very beginning he is illustrated as a sinister character through Golding’s use of diction such as ‘dark’, ‘shadow’ and ‘evil’. He also shows malice towards Piggy, shutting him up when he’s got the conch: â€Å"Shut up’ fatty!† this shows his disregard of the rules which pushes him to savagery. On the expedition around the island he found a piglet. Jack was on the point of killing it when he realized the â€Å"enormity the downward stroke would be† and let it get away, but afterwards he said, â€Å"Next time there would be no mercy† which is a turning point for Jack as he is now prepared to kill. The image of the pig can be linked to the character, Piggy, and Jack’s determination to kill the pig foreshadows his murder of Piggy. This is ironic since Jack was introduced as a choirboy and it reveals that we are all capable of evil. Unlike Ralph, Jack degenerates as a character, becoming an â€Å"ape-like† savage with a lust for killing. He attempts to assert his power and abolish the order when he tries to eliminate the need for the conch: â€Å"We don’t need the conch anymore.† After he becomes chief, he abuses his power. For instance, he makes his seat into a ‘throne’ and he takes Piggy’s glasses by force: â€Å"You came around like a thief and stole Piggy’s glasses.† He also managed to corrupt the others through his use of paint: â€Å"the mask compelled them† and the reward of meat. Golding’s central concern seems to be that there is a thin veneer between civilised man and the savage. He shows us that â€Å"the end of innocence and the darkness of man’s heart† is not applicable to everyone in the novel, for example, Ralph, Piggy and Simon are good characters, who possess the human spirit, in that their humanity and decency survive under the most extreme conditions. By contrasting characters, such as Ralph and Jack, Golding raises themes of good versus evil, loss of innocence and the struggle for power.